MSIN7019: 3D Bioprinting for Organ Transplant
A Background on 3D Bioprinting
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is the process of adding material to build a certain three-dimensional shape. These materials can range from plastic to glue to food. For a few years now, 3D printing has been fueling innovation in a number of different industries including engineering, art, manufacturing, and education. However it wasn’t until recently that advances have enabled the medical application of 3D printing to produce living tissues and organs. This process is known as 3D bioprinting. Unlike traditional 3D printing, bio-printed materials are not just composed of plastic. In fact, in order for a bio-printed organ to function, it must consist of a complex matrix of properly arranged cells and tissues. Thus, 3D bioprinting must use a successive layer-by-layer approach to generate tissue-like three-dimensional structures suitable for transplantation.
There are many complex processes that go into the 3D bioprinting process leading to various challenges for scientists including choice of materials, cell types, growth and differentiation factors, and technical challenges related to the sensitivities of living cells and the construction of tissues. Recent advances have enabled 3D printing of biocompatible materials, cells, and supporting components into complex 3D functional living tissues.
The process of 3D bioprinting can be simplified to following steps: First, scientists collect human cells from biopsies or stem cells and then allow them to multiply in a petri dish which forms a biological ink. The biological ink is then fed into a 3D printer which is programmed to arrange the cells and other materials into a certain 3D shape. This 3D shape is then printed and can be used for a variety of medical functions including research and transplant. A slightly more in depth, step-by-step, process is shown below.
How can 3D Bioprinting Change the World?
Lower Rejection Rate
While 3D-bioprinting is still growing and being revolutionized every day, the possibilities of what it can accomplish are endless. On the most basic level, 3D bioprinting can be used for creating replacement organs and human tissues from raw biological materials. These include hearts, livers, and kidneys, all of which will allow scientists and doctors to eliminate the wait list of organ transplants, a major issue in today’s society.
As 3D bioprinting becomes more developed, scientists also hope that 3D printed organs will have a lower rejection rate than current transplant practices. In a standard organ transplant, the risk of the immune system rejecting the new organ is high (see table below), so patients are forced to take immunosuppressant drugs, which in turn leave the patient dangerously vulnerable to infection. On the other hand, 3D bioprinting can utilize stem cells taken from the patient’s own body, which could eliminate the need for immunosuppresants all together.
Drug Industry Revolution
3D bioprinting will also have a revolutionary effect on the drug industry. Newly developed drugs and vaccines can be tested out on manufactured cells rather than on animals and humans. This will lead to major reductions in cost and time and increased testing accuracy. Bioprinting also opens up new ways of manufacturing prescription pills. For example, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first prescription drug to be developed through 3D bioprinting in August 2015. The drug, called Spritam, was a seizure medication for people with epilepsy. The drug was created from a set of biochemical inks, which means that doses of the drug can be customized for each patient who receives it. This will vastly increase the number of patients that can benefit from such a technology.
Individualization
Doctors have started to use bio-printing to scan and print plastic models of patients’ hearts which enables them to see any present defects before going into surgery. This is just another one of the many ways in which the 3D bioprinting technology could enable doctors to tailor treatments to individual patients, rather than developing a treatment that works well for most patients with that condition. Dentists have also started to take an intra-oral scan of a patient's teeth and send that scan to a lab which develops porcelain bridge using a 3-D printer.
Major leaps have been made in prosthetic manufacturing of artificial limbs as manufacturers can mold prosthetics perfectly to a person's body, giving the wearer a more comfortable fit. A doctor in the Netherlands has even implanted a 3D printed lower jaw made from bioceramic-coated titanium in a patient suffering from a chronic bone infection. These are all examples of the amazing individualization that 3D printing presents. If it continues to advance at such a rapid pace, 3D bioprinting can soon be used to create functional human beings which can be printed on demand and reach maturity in few weeks.
The origins of 3D bioprinting began in 1983 when Charles Hull invented the process of stereolithography. This process involved engineering the 3D shape of an object in a CAD software program and then sending that design to a printer which solidified a polymer material. Soon an industry developed around this “rapid prototyping process” and in 1986 Hull began to manufacture 3D printers and the materials to go in them. Within a few years, scientists began to realize that a similar method of 3D printing could be performed with biomaterials instead of plastic. They went out in search of such materials to make organ printing a reality. In 1999, Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative medicine reached a major milestone in 3D printing when they built a synthetic scaffold of a human bladder. This set the stage for bio-printing which has become revolutionized into a major industry.
The first company to commercialize 3D bioprinting was Organovo, based in San Diego, California. Organovo is known as an "early-stage regenerative medicine company" whose main focus is research and development on bioprinting. Organovo’s NovoGen MMX Bioprinter is the main machine developed to meet bioprinting challenges. The printer can print skin tissue, heart tissue, and blood vessels among other basic tissues that could be suitable for surgical therapy and transplantation. Orgavano is currently bringing in revenues by providing pharmaceutical companies with their exVive3D™ Liver Tissue for drug toxicity testing. They have also partnered with L’Oréal and Merck, and are planning to introduce their exVive3D™ Kidney Tissue at some point this year.
While the media is mainly focused on Organavo because they are behind the world's first ever 3D liver tissue, there are other major players who have also entered the healthcare industry with bio-printers. For example, a company called Cyfuse Biomedical is developing a 3D bioprinter called Regenova. Cyfuse uses a method called Kenzen to print three-dimensional cellular structures, such as human tissue, using cellular spheroids in fine needle arrays. Cyfuse has raised $16.5 million, and can print biological components such as blood vessels, digestive and urinary organs, cartilage, tubular tissues, and even miniature livers. On the other hand, a startup called BioBots is taking a different approach to the 3D bioprinting market. Rather than printing tissue samples and selling them to scientists and researchers, BioBots is offering affordable desktop bioprinters to researchers and pharmaceutical companies. BioBots uses a special BlueLight technology which cures their biomaterials without damaging the underlying cells. This allows the machines to print dozens of cells and materials at a very high resolution. Other companies include, 3D Systems and Stratasys Ltd. Both of these companies have developed printers for medical and dental use. TeVido BioDevices is trying to develop a method for 3D bioprinting breast implants made out of human tissue.
A thorough understanding of cell biology is imperative for the process of 3D bioprinting. First of all, scientists must determine what types of cells to use. This is often associated with extensive stem cell research which serves as the backbone to 3D printing of tissues and organs. Scientists must also understand how to expand cells in the lab and how to keep them alive and viable throughout the engineering process. Questions include whether or not the cells need to be embedded in biocompatible material and if so, which biomaterial is most suitable. This sets the bar for success very high as companies aim to engineer structures which function exactly like native tissue.
Utilizing Emerging Technologies and Advances
In order for companies to be successful in the field of 3D bioprinting, they must invent a way to manufacture 3D printed tissue replacement for all body organs. For this to happen, the companies must find cells that will not be rejected by the host’s immune system and organize the specialized cells into 3D tissues. The cells must be transportable and stored in a completely sterile environment. They must also be able to bring oxygen, minerals, and blood to the printed cells, a process known as vascularization. Preliminary research has begun as researchers have successfully programmed bioprinters to deposit biological components which can be fused into implantable, vascularized tissue. However, this remains the most challenging area of research for bioprinting moving forward. Companies must constantly remain on the brink of innovation, continuously improving existing processes and experimenting with new ones. The ultimate goal is to create a 3D structural framework which will allow cells to survive for long periods of time and which can be used both for research and transplantation down the road.
3D bioprinting companies must find a way to increase printing speed of the tissues and organs. Currently, conditions that increase printing speed, such as with the extrusion-based bioprinter, can lead to cell damage. This is because the long time it takes to print in high resolution requires methods to keep cells stable throughout the lengthy manufacturing process. The quicker and more effectively companies can address this issue, the faster they can increase profits.
3D bioprinting may conflict with certain cultural and religious beliefs as people’s lives will no longer be governed naturally. Instead, they will be reliant on the new technology to keep them alive in what is believed to be an “artificial state.” This argument goes hand in hand with the concern that as people’s lifespans increase, the world population will increase at an exponential rate, putting major pressure on the resource-limited planet earth. However, this is mainly a long-run concern as the printing technology is still in the development stage and not yet being applied in a mainstream fashion.
Bioprinting would effectively be able to combat these problems. In fact, bioprinting is becoming more and more economically feasible due to decreased material and equipment costs. For example, while the current cost of a bio-printed kidney is $280,000, that cost is supposed to decrease to under $120,000 by 2030. The reduction in cost will be a direct result of the increased demand for kidneys as well as increased competition, local manufacturing, and reduced inventory. A kidney currently only takes 10 hours to bio-print making it time-effective as well. The figure below shows how various challenges and opportunities associated with the bioprinting industry will be combated over time. Therefore, if bio-printing continuous to grow at the current rate, it could completely disrupt many of the companies which produce drugs and medical supplies. These companies go beyond those associated with diabetes to those that sell heart valves and pacemakers.
Lower Rejection Rate
While 3D-bioprinting is still growing and being revolutionized every day, the possibilities of what it can accomplish are endless. On the most basic level, 3D bioprinting can be used for creating replacement organs and human tissues from raw biological materials. These include hearts, livers, and kidneys, all of which will allow scientists and doctors to eliminate the wait list of organ transplants, a major issue in today’s society.
As 3D bioprinting becomes more developed, scientists also hope that 3D printed organs will have a lower rejection rate than current transplant practices. In a standard organ transplant, the risk of the immune system rejecting the new organ is high (see table below), so patients are forced to take immunosuppressant drugs, which in turn leave the patient dangerously vulnerable to infection. On the other hand, 3D bioprinting can utilize stem cells taken from the patient’s own body, which could eliminate the need for immunosuppresants all together.
Drug Industry Revolution
3D bioprinting will also have a revolutionary effect on the drug industry. Newly developed drugs and vaccines can be tested out on manufactured cells rather than on animals and humans. This will lead to major reductions in cost and time and increased testing accuracy. Bioprinting also opens up new ways of manufacturing prescription pills. For example, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first prescription drug to be developed through 3D bioprinting in August 2015. The drug, called Spritam, was a seizure medication for people with epilepsy. The drug was created from a set of biochemical inks, which means that doses of the drug can be customized for each patient who receives it. This will vastly increase the number of patients that can benefit from such a technology.
Individualization
Doctors have started to use bio-printing to scan and print plastic models of patients’ hearts which enables them to see any present defects before going into surgery. This is just another one of the many ways in which the 3D bioprinting technology could enable doctors to tailor treatments to individual patients, rather than developing a treatment that works well for most patients with that condition. Dentists have also started to take an intra-oral scan of a patient's teeth and send that scan to a lab which develops porcelain bridge using a 3-D printer.
Major leaps have been made in prosthetic manufacturing of artificial limbs as manufacturers can mold prosthetics perfectly to a person's body, giving the wearer a more comfortable fit. A doctor in the Netherlands has even implanted a 3D printed lower jaw made from bioceramic-coated titanium in a patient suffering from a chronic bone infection. These are all examples of the amazing individualization that 3D printing presents. If it continues to advance at such a rapid pace, 3D bioprinting can soon be used to create functional human beings which can be printed on demand and reach maturity in few weeks.
Development and Commercialization
The origins of 3D bioprinting began in 1983 when Charles Hull invented the process of stereolithography. This process involved engineering the 3D shape of an object in a CAD software program and then sending that design to a printer which solidified a polymer material. Soon an industry developed around this “rapid prototyping process” and in 1986 Hull began to manufacture 3D printers and the materials to go in them. Within a few years, scientists began to realize that a similar method of 3D printing could be performed with biomaterials instead of plastic. They went out in search of such materials to make organ printing a reality. In 1999, Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative medicine reached a major milestone in 3D printing when they built a synthetic scaffold of a human bladder. This set the stage for bio-printing which has become revolutionized into a major industry.
The first company to commercialize 3D bioprinting was Organovo, based in San Diego, California. Organovo is known as an "early-stage regenerative medicine company" whose main focus is research and development on bioprinting. Organovo’s NovoGen MMX Bioprinter is the main machine developed to meet bioprinting challenges. The printer can print skin tissue, heart tissue, and blood vessels among other basic tissues that could be suitable for surgical therapy and transplantation. Orgavano is currently bringing in revenues by providing pharmaceutical companies with their exVive3D™ Liver Tissue for drug toxicity testing. They have also partnered with L’Oréal and Merck, and are planning to introduce their exVive3D™ Kidney Tissue at some point this year.
While the media is mainly focused on Organavo because they are behind the world's first ever 3D liver tissue, there are other major players who have also entered the healthcare industry with bio-printers. For example, a company called Cyfuse Biomedical is developing a 3D bioprinter called Regenova. Cyfuse uses a method called Kenzen to print three-dimensional cellular structures, such as human tissue, using cellular spheroids in fine needle arrays. Cyfuse has raised $16.5 million, and can print biological components such as blood vessels, digestive and urinary organs, cartilage, tubular tissues, and even miniature livers. On the other hand, a startup called BioBots is taking a different approach to the 3D bioprinting market. Rather than printing tissue samples and selling them to scientists and researchers, BioBots is offering affordable desktop bioprinters to researchers and pharmaceutical companies. BioBots uses a special BlueLight technology which cures their biomaterials without damaging the underlying cells. This allows the machines to print dozens of cells and materials at a very high resolution. Other companies include, 3D Systems and Stratasys Ltd. Both of these companies have developed printers for medical and dental use. TeVido BioDevices is trying to develop a method for 3D bioprinting breast implants made out of human tissue.
The development of 3D bioprinting is not only focused in the United States. In fact, countries around the world are starting to adopt the technology as well. One such company is 3D Bioprinting Solutions, Russia's leading bioprinting firm. 3D bioprinting solutions was successful in fabricating the first mouse thyroid gland which was implanted into another mouse. The company hopes to develop a 3D printed kidney by 2018. A South Korean company called Rokit was given a $3 million government grant to enter the bioprinting industry. Rokit seeks to develop an in-situ 3D bioprinter by 2018, and will initially concentrate on 3D printing human skin for burn victims and those with dermatological diseases.
Institutions such as colleges and universities have also aided in the development of the bio-printing technology. For example, Wake Forest University helped to determine suitable biomaterial and also possesses altered ink-jet technology to build prototypes of organs and tissues. The University of Louisville has developed a 6-axis bioprinter that uses fat and collagen to craft working components of a human heart. Finally, the research team at Swansea University in the UK is using bioprinting technology to produce soft tissues and artificial bones for eventual use in reconstructive surgery.
3D Bioprinting Company Core Competencies
Understanding Cell Biology
Utilizing Emerging Technologies and Advances
In order for companies to be successful in the field of 3D bioprinting, they must invent a way to manufacture 3D printed tissue replacement for all body organs. For this to happen, the companies must find cells that will not be rejected by the host’s immune system and organize the specialized cells into 3D tissues. The cells must be transportable and stored in a completely sterile environment. They must also be able to bring oxygen, minerals, and blood to the printed cells, a process known as vascularization. Preliminary research has begun as researchers have successfully programmed bioprinters to deposit biological components which can be fused into implantable, vascularized tissue. However, this remains the most challenging area of research for bioprinting moving forward. Companies must constantly remain on the brink of innovation, continuously improving existing processes and experimenting with new ones. The ultimate goal is to create a 3D structural framework which will allow cells to survive for long periods of time and which can be used both for research and transplantation down the road.
Funding for Research
Unlike 3D printing of an article of clothing or a toy, it is not obvious right away whether or not a 3D bioprinting organ actually works. Therefore, 3D bioprinting is a very expensive and consuming process which involves millions of dollars in tests, experimentation, and materials. A key competency for bioprinting companies is innovation in raising funds and boosting revenue. These companies must apply for grant applications and lure in venture capitalists. This remains a great challenge as venture capitalists are often reluctant to invest in such an emerging, young technology. However, if the companies can show that investment in 3D bioprinting will lead to realized, tangible benefits in the near future, they have the potential to dominate the market.
Production Speed
3D bioprinting companies must find a way to increase printing speed of the tissues and organs. Currently, conditions that increase printing speed, such as with the extrusion-based bioprinter, can lead to cell damage. This is because the long time it takes to print in high resolution requires methods to keep cells stable throughout the lengthy manufacturing process. The quicker and more effectively companies can address this issue, the faster they can increase profits.
Barriers to Adoption
Ease of Use
The most important and perhaps the hardest barrier to overcome is ease of use; in other words, nothing will get done if users do not know how to operate the technology. Since 3D bioprinting is still in the development stage, there are relatively few people who know how to operate the complex machinery. In order to allow the bioprinting industry to grow, companies must spend additional fees to hire experts who know how to operate the printers. Furthermore, there are many technical challenges involved which relate to the sensitivity of living cells and the construction of tissues. For example, in order for printing organs and implantable tissues to be feasible, experts must find a way to make cell tissues thicker. To address this barrier, technologies from the fields of engineering, biomaterials science, cell biology, physics and medicine must all be integrated together. In fact, Organovo claimed to have “achieved thicknesses of greater than 500 microns, and have maintained liver tissue in a fully functional state with native phenotypic behavior for at least 40 days." This is wonderful news as Organovo is planning to print a functioning liver this year to be used for pharmaceutical testing and development.
Storage and Functionality of Materials
Since the materials such as tissues and organs used in 3D bioprinting are biological in nature, they require very specific conditions under which they must be preserved. Likewise, many of these materials are not readily available, making testing their functionality a difficult task. Luckily, however, material cost and availability is not a long-term barrier as there is no change in cost of materials as complexity increases (the marginal cost of the materials is zero). The cost for biomaterial is also expected to decrease over time as a result of an increase in the number of manufacturers, increase in demand, novel material compositions, and reduced inventory. This is very important as the bio-printing industry can become fundamental to human longevity for years to come.
Ease of Use
The most important and perhaps the hardest barrier to overcome is ease of use; in other words, nothing will get done if users do not know how to operate the technology. Since 3D bioprinting is still in the development stage, there are relatively few people who know how to operate the complex machinery. In order to allow the bioprinting industry to grow, companies must spend additional fees to hire experts who know how to operate the printers. Furthermore, there are many technical challenges involved which relate to the sensitivity of living cells and the construction of tissues. For example, in order for printing organs and implantable tissues to be feasible, experts must find a way to make cell tissues thicker. To address this barrier, technologies from the fields of engineering, biomaterials science, cell biology, physics and medicine must all be integrated together. In fact, Organovo claimed to have “achieved thicknesses of greater than 500 microns, and have maintained liver tissue in a fully functional state with native phenotypic behavior for at least 40 days." This is wonderful news as Organovo is planning to print a functioning liver this year to be used for pharmaceutical testing and development.
Storage and Functionality of Materials
Since the materials such as tissues and organs used in 3D bioprinting are biological in nature, they require very specific conditions under which they must be preserved. Likewise, many of these materials are not readily available, making testing their functionality a difficult task. Luckily, however, material cost and availability is not a long-term barrier as there is no change in cost of materials as complexity increases (the marginal cost of the materials is zero). The cost for biomaterial is also expected to decrease over time as a result of an increase in the number of manufacturers, increase in demand, novel material compositions, and reduced inventory. This is very important as the bio-printing industry can become fundamental to human longevity for years to come.
Cost
If it is expected for 3D printers to spread and be used widely across the medical industry, they must be relatively cheap to run. To make this possible, companies which produce the 3D printers will need cheap and widely available materials and choice of suppliers. Organovo spends about $15.2 million of funding to further research on bioprinting and requires financial help of investors and donors. The information itself needed to make bio-printing possible is expensive. For example, 1 Pb of human tissue costs about $71,680. These high costs may be prohibitive for many patients as they could only be available to those who are willing and able to pay the extra cost. However, as the 3D printing technology progresses, costs of certain procedures such as transplants, implants, and prosthetics may actually decrease making them within reach for many more patients. Start-up costs associated with acquiring the printing technology are also decreasing due to the increased demand, economies of scale, and cheaper/more accessible printer parts.
If it is expected for 3D printers to spread and be used widely across the medical industry, they must be relatively cheap to run. To make this possible, companies which produce the 3D printers will need cheap and widely available materials and choice of suppliers. Organovo spends about $15.2 million of funding to further research on bioprinting and requires financial help of investors and donors. The information itself needed to make bio-printing possible is expensive. For example, 1 Pb of human tissue costs about $71,680. These high costs may be prohibitive for many patients as they could only be available to those who are willing and able to pay the extra cost. However, as the 3D printing technology progresses, costs of certain procedures such as transplants, implants, and prosthetics may actually decrease making them within reach for many more patients. Start-up costs associated with acquiring the printing technology are also decreasing due to the increased demand, economies of scale, and cheaper/more accessible printer parts.
Ethical and Environmental Concerns
3D bioprinting may conflict with certain cultural and religious beliefs as people’s lives will no longer be governed naturally. Instead, they will be reliant on the new technology to keep them alive in what is believed to be an “artificial state.” This argument goes hand in hand with the concern that as people’s lifespans increase, the world population will increase at an exponential rate, putting major pressure on the resource-limited planet earth. However, this is mainly a long-run concern as the printing technology is still in the development stage and not yet being applied in a mainstream fashion.
Competition and Disruption
Bio-printing is considered to be highly disruptive, particularly because of low competition, high barriers to entry, and high rate of growth (about 13% per year) throughout the bio-printing industry.
Competition is low due to the amount of niche opportunities that exist throughout the industry. Bioprinting requires biocompatible materials (bio-ink and bio-paper), software (CAD), and hardware (bioprinters), each of which has the capability to grow into a separate industry. Likewise, “no two organizations are performing the same R&D research, and when synergies exist firms often choose to partner with one another rather than waste resources competing.” Many of the key players in the bioprinting industry have also collaborated or associated with educational institutions, universities, and research firms in an effort to spur innovation and increase funding.
Barriers to entry are high because the research is usually very specialized and requires a significant amount of investment, usually by the government or private donors. Some other impediments include costs and expertise associated with operating biomaterials and software. At the same time, the profitability risk is very high which may further decrease incentive for entry.
The global 3D bioprinting market size was valued at USD 487.0 million in 2014. It is expected to witness significant growth and attention from healthcare researchers in the near future due to "rising incidences of chronic illnesses leading to organ and tissue transplants coupled with increasing life span of individuals and limited number of organ donors." At the very least, bio-printing has the power to completely wipe out the earliest stages of experimental models in drug development. This is mainly due to the decrease in costs associated with bioprinting. A new drug takes on average 12 years to develop and costs $1.2 billion. Each year, the drug industry spends $50 billion on R&D to approve about 20 new drugs. In fact, only 1 in 5000 has a chance to make it to the market and 20-50% of drugs fail before making it to human trials. Furthermore, an average of $245 billion is currently spent in the United States for diabetes treatment. This includes costs of kidney dialysis, blood sugar testing, insulin pumps and pills, etc. A kidney transplant costs $80,000. However, as can be seen below, the gap between patients on the waiting list for a kidney transplant and donor availability is growing exponentially as there are not enough kidneys available.
Bioprinting would effectively be able to combat these problems. In fact, bioprinting is becoming more and more economically feasible due to decreased material and equipment costs. For example, while the current cost of a bio-printed kidney is $280,000, that cost is supposed to decrease to under $120,000 by 2030. The reduction in cost will be a direct result of the increased demand for kidneys as well as increased competition, local manufacturing, and reduced inventory. A kidney currently only takes 10 hours to bio-print making it time-effective as well. The figure below shows how various challenges and opportunities associated with the bioprinting industry will be combated over time. Therefore, if bio-printing continuous to grow at the current rate, it could completely disrupt many of the companies which produce drugs and medical supplies. These companies go beyond those associated with diabetes to those that sell heart valves and pacemakers.
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Interesting concept. I have no doubt this will be fully implemented in medicine one day. Simpler procedures are already used in clinical practice (eg, cultivating epidermal cells in vitro [extracted from people who suffered severe burn injuries] and transplanting back the "skin = cell layer" formed in vitro back on tope of the skin that burned......it will take a while before we can print 3D organs.........what about the vessels? and cells are already diffrentiated...they won't obey taking new forms....do they have to be de-differentiated/
ReplyDeleteIt's exciting to know that these types of concepts are possible in the future. There are so many possibilities in improving quality of life as well as changing how we view medical intervention.
ReplyDeletethis is very exciting concept, especially since we know someone who went thru heart transplant. If 3D printing were available, I'm sure that the rejection rate would be minimized. I'm sure this will be further developed in the next 10 years.
ReplyDelete"This has really interesting implications for the debate about what counts as life, which would be nice to turn from politics to science. I also wonder 3D bioprinting this will help bridge the gap between industry and academic research. Really exciting and interesting technology! �� "
ReplyDeleteYour part about Competition and Disruption is well done! I did some researches about bio-printing, entry barriers are indeed very high even if the market growth is huge.
ReplyDeleteAlso it was interesting to see that 3D printers exist since the early 80s and that even tens of years later it is still not used with its maximum potential!
Really interesting read, thank you Lori! Personally I was not aware this technology is already so developed, and having read your analysis of barriers to its adoption I think it is indeed a highly disruptive force with potential to change the medical industry.
ReplyDeleteExcellent range of comments!
ReplyDelete